Intshayelelo
A Igeyiji yoxinzelelorsisixhobo esenzelwe ukudambisa impembelelo ye-spikes yoxinzelelo kunye ne-pulsations kwiinkqubo zoomatshini.
Ngokulinganisa izinga apho i-fluid okanye igesi ifika kwindawo yokulinganisa, i-snubbers inceda ukugcina ukufundwa kunye nokuchaneka kwemilinganiselo yoxinzelelo kunye nokwandisa ubomi babo benkonzo.
Ziluncedo kakhulu kwizicelo apho uxinzelelo oludlulayo lunokubangela umonakalo omkhulu kwi-sensor kunye namanye amacandelo
Yintoni i-Pressure Gauge Snubber kwaye kutheni uyifuna enye?
Yintoni i-Pressure Gauge Snubber kunye
Kutheni ufuna i-Pressure Gauge Snubber?
I-snubber ye-pressure gauge yinxalenye ebalulekileyo kwiinkqubo ezininzi zoomatshini.
Ikhusela iigeyiji zoxinzelelo emonakalweni ngokufunxa ii-spikes zoxinzelelo olukhawulezileyo kunye nokujikeleza.
Ngokunciphisa oku kuguquguquka, i-snubbers iphucula ukusebenza kwegeyiji ngeendlela ezininzi:
*Ukhuseleko:
Isebenza njengomqobo phakathi komthombo woxinzelelo kunye negeyiji, iwukhusela ekunyukeni koxinzelelo oluyingozi.
*Ukufundeka okuphuculweyo:
Yenza ufundo lwegeji ezinzileyo, iyenze kube lula ukuyitolika, ngakumbi kwiinkqubo ezinoxinzelelo olubetha ngamandla.
*Ubomi beGauge eyandisiweyo:
Yehlisa uxinzelelo kumacandelo egeyiji, yandisa ubomi bawo kunye nokugcina iindleko zokutshintshwa.
*Ukuchaneka okuphuculweyo:
Uhluza utshintsho olukhawulezayo loxinzelelo, ukubonelela ngemilinganiselo yoxinzelelo oluchanekileyo kunye noluthembekileyo.
*Ukuguquguquka:
Iyahambelana noluhlu olubanzi lwemithombo yeendaba, kubandakanya amanzi, umphunga, ioyile, ipetroli, umoya, kunye neegesi ezahlukeneyo.
*Ukugcinwa koLungiso:
Igcina ukuchaneka kwegeyiji ixesha elongeziweyo ngokuthintela umonakalo ovela kwi-spikes yoxinzelelo.
Kumashishini apho ukufundwa koxinzelelo oluchanekileyo kunye nokuthembeka kwezixhobo kubaluleke kakhulu, i-press gauge snubbers iyimfuneko. Banikezela ngesisombululo esineendleko zokukhusela izixhobo, ukuphucula ukuchaneka komlinganiselo, kunye nokwandisa ukusebenza kwenkqubo.
Umgaqo-siseko wokuSebenza we-Pressure Gauge Snubber
A Igeyiji yoxinzelelo snubberisebenza njengekhaka phakathi komthombo woxinzelelo kunye negeyiji, iwukhusela ekwenzakaleni. Umsebenzi wayo ophambili kukudambisa okanye ukunciphisa impembelelo yoxinzelelo kunye neepulsations.
Indlela yokuDampisa:
Umgaqo ongundoqo osemva komsebenzi we-snubber ujikeleza ekuthinteleni kunye nokulawula ukuhamba kwamanzi okanye igesi efikelela kwigeyiji yoxinzelelo. Esi sithintelo sidala isiphumo sokudambisa, sigudisa ukuguquguquka okukhawulezileyo koxinzelelo.
Kukho iindlela ezimbini eziphambili zokuphumeza oku kuncipha:
1.Orifice okanye uMthintelo:
I-snubber ibonisa indawo encinci yokuvula (i-orifice) okanye enye indlela yothintelo oluthintela umlinganiselo wokuhamba kwamanzi okanye igesi.
Xa kukho ukunyanzeliswa koxinzelelo, ulwelo ludibana nokuxhathisa, luthintele ukuba lufike kwigeyiji ngoko nangoko.
Oku kulibaziseka kuvumela amaza oxinzelelo ukuba aphele ngaphambi kokuba achaphazele igeyiji.
2.Into yokudambisa:
Abanye abakhuseli basebenzisa into edambisayo, efana nepiston okanye i-porous material, ukufunxa amandla oxinzelelo.
Le elementi iyashukuma okanye ikhubazeke ekuphenduleni i-spike yoxinzelelo, inciphisa ukuqina kwayo phambi kokuba ifike kwigeyiji.
Ingcaciso eneenkcukacha (Piston-Type Snubber):
Masisebenzise i-snubber yohlobo lwepiston njengomzekelo ukubonisa indlela yokudambisa:
1.Uxinzelelo loxinzelelo:
Xa ukunyuka koxinzelelo ngokukhawuleza kwenzeka kwinkqubo, i-high-pressure fluid okanye igesi ityhala kwipiston ngaphakathi kwe-snubber.
2.Intshukumo yePiston:
Amandla oxinzelelo loxinzelelo abangela ukuba i-piston ihambe, icinezele ulwelo okanye igesi ngaphakathi kwe-snubber.
3.Isiphumo sokudambisa:
Njengoko ipiston ihamba, idala ukuchasana nokuhamba kolwelo, ithomalalise ngokufanelekileyo i-spike yoxinzelelo.
Amandla otyando afunxwa kukushukuma kwepiston kunye nokunyanzeliswa kolwelo.
4.Ukunyuka koxinzelelo oluthe chu:
Uxinzelelo oludambileyo lugqithiselwa ngokuthe ngcembe kwigeyiji yoxinzelelo,
ukuvumela ukuba i-gauge iphendule ngokuchanekileyo ngaphandle kokulimala ngokutshintsha kwengcinezelo ngokukhawuleza.
Ngokuthomalalisa ngokufanelekileyo ukunyuka koxinzelelo, i-snubbers zikhusela iigeji zoxinzelelo kumonakalo,
ukuphucula ukuchaneka komlinganiselo, kunye nokwandisa ubomi begeyiji.
Ukukhetha uhlobo lwe-snubber kuxhomekeke kwizinto ezifana nobunzima bokuguquguquka koxinzelelo, uhlobo lolwelo, kunye nenqanaba elifunekayo lokumanzisa.
Umsebenzi kunye noBuchule
Iigeyiji zoxinzelelo loxinzelelo zisebenza ngokunciphisa izinga lolwelo lokutshintsha koxinzelelo, ngokuqhelekileyo ngokusebenzisa into encinci ethintela ukuhamba kwamanzi.
Esi sithintelo silibazisa ukunyuka koxinzelelo ngesiquphe ezantsi komsinga, ukuhluza ngokufanelekileyo izikhonkwane zoxinzelelo ngelixa uvumela utshintsho lwe-quasi-static pressure ukuba ludlule.
Isiphumo sifundeka lula kwaye sizinzile ngakumbi, esithintela umonakalo kwigeyiji yoxinzelelo kunye namanye amacandelo abuthathaka kwinkqubo.
Iindidi ze-Pressure Gauge Snubbers
I-Piston-Type Snubbers
I-piston-type snubbers isebenzisa ipiston eshukumayo ngaphakathi kwesixhobo.
Xa iphantsi koxinzelelo olukhawulezayo, i-piston iyatshintsha, ithintele ukuhamba kwamanzi kwi-gauge.
Esi senzo sinciphisa ngokufanelekileyo i-spikes yoxinzelelo, ukukhusela i-gauge.
Ezi snubbers zisebenza ngokukodwa kwizicelo ezinokuguquguquka okukhulu koxinzelelo
kwaye zihlala zisetyenziswa kwiinkqubo ze-hydraulic kunye ne-pneumatic.
IiPorous Disk Snubbers
Iiporous disk snubbers zisebenzisa i-fine-mesh disk ukunqanda ukuhamba kwamanzi kwigeyiji yoxinzelelo.
Idisk's porosity imisela inqanaba lokudambisa.
La ma-snubbers alula kwaye anoqoqosho, okwenza ukuba afaneleke kwizicelo ezahlukeneyo.
Nangona kunjalo, bathanda ukuvala, ngakumbi xa bejongana nolwelo olumdaka okanye olubonakalayo.
IiCapillary Tube Snubbers
I-Capillary tube snubbers isebenzisa ityhubhu ende, emxinwa ukunqanda ukuhamba kwamanzi.
Ubude bombhobho kunye nobubanzi buchaphazela umthamo wokudambisa.
Ezi snubbers zinika ulawulo oluchanekileyo phezu kokudambisa uxinzelelo kwaye ziqhelekileyo
isetyenziswe kwizicelo ezifuna ukuchaneka okuphezulu, okufana nesixhobo kunye nokulinganisa.
Orifice-Uhlobo Snubbers
I-Orifice-type snubbers ibonisa indawo encinci yokuvula (i-orifice) ethintela ukuhamba kwamanzi.
Ubungakanani be-orifice bumisela inqanaba lokumanzisa.
Ezi snubbers ngokuqhelekileyo azibizi kakhulu kunezinye iindidi kodwa zinokuba nemida ngokomthamo wokuhamba
kunye nokusebenza okumanzi xa kuthelekiswa nepiston okanye i-capillary tube snubbers.
Phawula:Ukukhethwa kwe-snubber yoxinzelelo olufanelekileyo kuxhomekeke kwizinto ezahlukeneyo,
kubandakanywa uhlobo lolwelo, uluhlu loxinzelelo, i-pulsation frequency, kunye nenqanaba elifunekayo lokumanzisa.
Kutheni iStainless Steel Pressure Gauge Snubbers idumile
I-Stainless steel gauge gauge snubbers zikhethwa ngokubanzi ngenxa yeempawu zazo ezikhethekileyo:
Ukuqina kunye noKuchasana nokuMhlwa
*Ubomi obude:
Insimbi engenasici idume ngokuchasa ukunxiba kunye nokukrazula, ukuqinisekisa ukuba i-snubber igcina ingqibelelo yayo phantsi kweemeko ezinzima.
*Ukhuseleko lokuMhlwa :
Ukuxhathisa kwayo kwindalo kukwenza ukuba ilungele usetyenziso olubandakanya ulwelo oludlekayo okanye okusingqongileyo.
Amandla oomatshini kunye noKuguquguquka
*Amandla aphezulu:
Insimbi engenasici inika amandla omatshini abalaseleyo, ekwaziyo ukumelana noxinzelelo oluphezulu kunye nokungcangcazela ngaphandle kokuguqulwa.
*Usetyenziso olwahlukeneyo:
Ukuguquguquka kwayo kuvumela ukusetyenziswa kuluhlu olubanzi lwamashishini kunye nokusetyenziswa, ukusuka ekuqhutyweni kweekhemikhali ukuya kukutya kunye nesiselo.
Izicelo kumaShishini ahlukeneyo
I-snubbers yensimbi engenasici ifumana into eluncedo kumacandelo amaninzi ngenxa yokuthembeka kunye nokuhambelana:
*Ukwenziwa kweMichiza:
Iphatha izinto eziyingozi ngaphandle kokubeka esichengeni isidima se-snubber.
*Ukutya kunye nesiselo:
Iyahambelana nemigangatho yococeko kwaye iyaxhathisa ukungcoliseka.
*Amayeza:
Iqinisekisa ukucoceka kwemveliso kwiindawo ezingcolileyo.
*Ioyile neGesi:
Ukumelana noxinzelelo oluphezulu kunye namaqondo obushushu aphezulu.
*Ezaselwandle:
Ixhathisa ukonakala kwamanzi etyuwa kwaye inika ukuqina kwiimeko ezinzima.
Ungasikhetha njani iSnubber yoxinzelelo oluchanekileyo
Ukukhetha i-snubber yoxinzelelo olufanelekileyo lwegeyiji kubalulekile ekusebenzeni kakuhle kwenkqubo kunye nokhuseleko lwegeyiji. Nazi izinto eziphambili ekufuneka ziqwalaselwe ukwenza olona khetho lungcono:
Izinto Emaziqwalaselwe:
*Isicelo:
Iingcebiso zokukhetha esona Snubber siBalaseleyo:
* Qonda inkqubo:
Ngokuqwalasela ngononophelo ezi zinto kwaye ulandele ezi ngcebiso, unokukhetha i-snubber yoxinzelelo olufanelekileyo ukukhusela izixhobo zakho,
ukuphucula ukuchaneka komlinganiselo, kunye nokwandisa ukuthembeka kwenkqubo iyonke.
Ufakelo lwe-Snubber ye-Pressure Gauge
Ukufakela i-snubber yegeyiji yoxinzelelo yinkqubo ethe ngqo, kodwa kubalulekile ukulandela amanyathelo achanekileyo ukuqinisekisa ukusebenza ngokupheleleyo kunye nokhuseleko.
Isikhokelo sokuFakelo seNyathelo-ngenyathelo
1.Cima inkqubo:
Ngaphambi kokuqala naluphi na ufakelo, qinisekisa ukuba inkqubo icinezelekile ngokupheleleyo kwaye yodwa.
Iimpazamo Eziqhelekileyo Emaziphephe
*Ukhetho lweSnubber engalunganga:
Ukusebenzisa i-snubber engahambelani nenkqubo okanye i-gauge ingakhokelela ekufundweni okungachanekanga okanye umonakalo kwisixhobo.
*Ufakelo olungafanelekanga:
Ukudityaniswa okuxekethileyo okanye ukunqumla imisonto kunokubangela ukuvuza okanye ukusilela kwenkqubo.
*Ukungahoyi Ukuvalwa kweNkqubo:
Ukusebenza kwinkqubo yoxinzelelo kunokuba yingozi. Ngalo lonke ixesha qinisekisa ukuba inkqubo yodwa ngokupheleleyo phambi kokuba uqalise nawuphi na umsebenzi.
*Ukungahoyi uLondolozo:
Ukuhlolwa rhoqo kunye nokugcinwa kwe-snubber kubalulekile ekusebenzeni kakuhle.
Iingcebiso zokuLondoloza kwi-Pressure Gauge Snubbers
Ukugcinwa ngokufanelekileyo kwe-snubber yegeyiji yoxinzelelo kubalulekile ekuqinisekiseni ukusebenza kwayo okuqhubekayo kunye nokukhusela igeyiji yoxinzelelo lwakho.
Ukuhlolwa rhoqo kunye nokuCoca
*Uhlolo olubonakalayo:
Rhoqo jonga iimpawu zomonakalo, njengokuqhekeka, ukuvuza, okanye umhlwa.
*Ukucoca:
Ngokuxhomekeke kuhlobo lwe-snubber kunye nolwelo oluvezwe kulo, ukucoca kunokuba yimfuneko.
Sebenzisa izinyibilikisi ezifanelekileyo zokucoca kwaye ulandele izikhokelo zomenzi.
*Uthintelo lokuvala:
Kwi-porous disk snubbers, ukucocwa rhoqo kunokuthintela ukuvala, oku kunokuchaphazela ukusebenza.
Ukusombulula imiba eqhelekileyo
*Ufundo olungachanekanga:
Khangela izithintelo, umonakalo, okanye ufakelo olungachanekanga. Qinisekisa ukuba i-snubber iyahambelana nolwelo kunye neemeko zoxinzelelo.
*Ukuguquguquka okuKhawuleza kweGauge:
Oku kungabonisa i-snubber eyonakeleyo okanye egugileyo. Faka indawo ye-snubber ukuba kuyimfuneko.
*Ukuvuza:
Qinisa uqhagamshelo, jonga umonakalo, kwaye ubuyisele naziphi na izinto ezigugileyo okanye ezonakeleyo.
Ukuqinisekisa ukuchaneka kwexesha elide kunye nokuSebenza
*Landela iziKhokelo zabavelisi:
Namathela kwiingcebiso zomenzi malunga nokugcinwa, ukutshintshwa, kunye neemeko zokusebenza.
*Ulungelelwaniso:
Ngelixa i-snubbers ayifuni ngokuqhelekileyo ukulinganisa, igeyiji yoxinzelelo ngokwayo kufuneka ilinganiswe rhoqo ukuqinisekisa ukufundwa okuchanekileyo.
*Iimeko zokusingqongileyo:
Khusela i-snubber kumaqondo obushushu agqithisileyo, ukungcangcazela, kunye nemekobume eyonakalisayo.
Ngokulandela ezi ngcebiso zolondolozo, unokwandisa ubomi begeyiji yoxinzelelo lwe-snubber kwaye ugcine ufundo oluchanekileyo loxinzelelo.
Indima ye-Pressure Gauge Snubbers kwii-Hydraulic Systems
Iinkqubo zeHydraulic ziqhelene nokunyuka koxinzelelo kunye neepulsations ngenxa yobume bamandla olwelo.
Oku kuguquguquka okukhawulezileyo koxinzelelo kunokuchaphazela kakhulu ukuchaneka kunye nobomi beegeji zoxinzelelo.
Apha kulapho igeyiji yoxinzelelo lwe-snubbers iba yimfuneko khona.
Ukubaluleka kweeSnubbers ekuGcineni ukuzinza kweNkqubo kunye nokuchaneka
*Ukukhuselwa kweZilinganisi zoxinzelelo:
I-Snubbers isebenza njengekhaka, ifunxa ukothuka kwe-spikes yoxinzelelo, ukuthintela umonakalo kwizinto zangaphakathi zegeyiji.
*Ukufundeka kweGauge ephuculweyo:
Ngokunciphisa ukuguquguquka koxinzelelo, i-snubbers ibonelela ngokuzinza ngakumbi kunye nokufundwa kwegeji echanekileyo.
*Uzinzo lweNkqubo:
I-Snubbers inegalelo ekuzinzeni kwenkqubo ngokubanzi ngokunciphisa ukuhluka koxinzelelo, okunokuchaphazela amanye amacandelo.
IiNzuzo eziKhethekileyo kwiiAcelo zeHydraulic
*Ubomi beGauge eyandisiweyo:
Kwiinkqubo ze-hydraulic, apho ukuguquguquka koxinzelelo kuqhelekileyo, i-snubbers yandisa kakhulu ubomi bemilinganiselo yoxinzelelo.
*Imilinganiselo yoxinzelelo echanekileyo:
Iinkqubo ze-hydraulic zihlala zifuna ulawulo oluchanekileyo loxinzelelo. I-Snubbers iphucula ukuchaneka komlinganiselo ngokuhluza ingxolo.
*Ugcino oluncitshisiweyo:
Ngokukhusela i-gauge, i-snubbers inceda ukunciphisa iindleko zokugcina kunye nexesha lokunciphisa.
Ukuthelekisa i-Pressure Gauge Snubbers: iStainless Steel vs. Brass vs. Ezinye izinto
Xa ukhetha i-snubber ye-pressure gauge, i-material idlala indima ebalulekileyo ekunqumeni ukufaneleka kwayo kwizicelo ezithile. Izixhobo ezahlukeneyo zibonelela ngezinto eziluncedo kunye nezingeloncedo ezizodwa, zinefuthe lokuqina, ukuxhathisa ukubola, kunye nokuhambelana nolwelo olwahlukeneyo. Nalu uthelekiso lwentsimbi engatyiwayo, ubhedu, kunye nezinye izinto eziqhelekileyo ezisetyenziswa kwigeyiji yoxinzelelo.
IiPros and Cons of the Different Materials
Izinto eziphathekayo | IiPros | Ububi | Ii-Applications ezilungileyo |
---|---|---|---|
Yenziwe ngentsimbi eshayinayo | - Ixhathisa kakhulu kumhlwa | - Ixabiso eliphezulu kunobhedu kunye nezinye izinto | -Iimekobume ezirhabaxa |
- Yomelele kwaye yomelele | - Inzima kunezinye iindlela | - Ukulungiswa kwemichiza | |
- Ifanelekile kuluhlu olubanzi lwamaqondo obushushu | - Amashishini e-oyile negesi | ||
-Non-reactive kwaye kulula ukuyicoca | - Ukutya kunye namashishini amayeza | ||
- Iindawo zaselwandle | |||
Ubhedu | - Isebenza kakuhle emalini | -Ngaphantsi ukunyathela kwi-corrosion kunentsimbi engatyiwa | - Izicelo zenjongo ngokubanzi |
-Ubuchule bokuzenzela | - Ayizifanelanga iindawo ezinobume obuphezulu | - Iinkqubo zamanzi | |
-Ikhaphukhaphu | - Iinkqubo zeHVAC | ||
- Yanele kumaqondo obushushu aphakathi | - Iinkqubo zoxinzelelo eziphantsi ukuya kwimodareyitha | ||
Intsimbi yeCarbon | - Yomelele kwaye yomelele | - Ithanda ukuba nomhlwa kunye nomhlwa ukuba ayikhuselwanga | - Iinkqubo zoxinzelelo oluphezulu |
- Isebenza kakuhle emalini | - Ifuna iingubo ezikhuselayo zokumelana nomhlwa | - Izicelo zamashishini | |
-Ilungile kwizicelo zoxinzelelo oluphezulu | - Ukusetyenziswa kolwakhiwo | ||
Iplastiki | -Ikhaphukhaphu kunye ne-corrosion-resistant | - Ubushushu obuncinci kunye noluhlu loxinzelelo | - Iinkqubo zoxinzelelo oluphantsi |
- Ayibizi | - Ihlala ingaphantsi kunezinye iindlela zetsimbi | - Iinkqubo zolwelo ezingadleliyo | |
- Ilungele ulwelo olungadlekiyo | - Iitanki zokugcina imichiza | ||
Monel | -Ukumelana nokugqwesa okugqwesileyo, ngakumbi kumanzi olwandle | - Iyabiza | - Iindawo zaselwandle |
- Yomelele kwaye yomelele | - Ukufumaneka okulinganiselweyo | - Ukulungiswa kwemichiza | |
-Ilungile kuxinzelelo oluphezulu kunye nezicelo zobushushu obuphezulu | - Amashishini e-oyile negesi |
Ukukhetha iMathiriyeli eLungileyo kwizicelo ezithe ngqo
1.IiNdawo eziNgqongileyo kunye neZiselo eziNcincisayo:
Insimbi engenasici kunye neMonel lukhetho oluhle kakhulu ngenxa yokumelana nokugqwesa okuphezulu kunye nokuqina. Ezi zixhobo zilungele ukusetyenzwa kweekhemikhali, zaselwandle, nakwimizi-mveliso yeoli negesi.
2.Izicelo zeNjongo ngokubanzi:
I-Brass inikezela ngesisombululo esisebenzayo kwiinkqubo ezinobushushu obuphakathi kunye noxinzelelo. Ilungele iinkqubo zamanzi, i-HVAC, kunye neenkqubo zoxinzelelo oluphantsi ukuya koluphakathi.
3.Iinkqubo zoxinzelelo oluphezulu:
Intsimbi yeCarbon yomelele kwaye yomelele, iyenza ibe lukhetho olufanelekileyo kwizicelo zoxinzelelo oluphezulu kwizicwangciso zoshishino. Nangona kunjalo, ifuna iingubo ezikhuselayo zokukhusela i-rust kunye ne-corrosion.
4.I-Low-Pressure kunye ne-Non-Corrosive Systems:
I-snubbers zeplastiki zikhaphukhaphu, azibizi, kwaye ziyakwazi ukumelana nomhlwa, zizenza zilungele ukusetyenziswa koxinzelelo oluphantsi kunye nolwelo olungadlekiyo, olufana neekhemikhali.iitanki zokugcina.
5.IiNdawo zaseLwandle:
I-Monel ixhathisa kakhulu kwi-corrosion yamanzi olwandle, iyenza ibe lolona khetho lufanelekileyo kwizicelo zaselwandle. Amandla ayo kunye nokuqina kwayo kuyenza ifaneleke kwiindawo ezinoxinzelelo oluphezulu kunye nobushushu obuphezulu.
Ngokuqonda iingenelo kunye neengozi zezixhobo ezahlukeneyo, unokukhetha eyona snubber ifanelekileyo yoxinzelelo kwisicelo sakho, uqinisekisa ukusebenza okugqibeleleyo kunye nokuphila ixesha elide.
Ukuqukumbela
I-Pressure gauge snubbers idlala indima ebalulekileyo ekukhuseleni imilinganiselo yoxinzelelo kwi-surges kunye ne-pulsations, ukuqinisekisa ukufundwa okuchanekileyo kunye nokuzinza.
Ukukhetha imathiriyeli efanelekileyo kwi-snubber yegeyiji yoxinzelelo lwakho kubalulekile ekusebenzeni kakuhle kwenkqubo kunye nobomi obude.
Nokuba ufuna ukuqina kwentsimbi engatyiwayo, indleko yobhedu, okanye iipropathi ezikhethekileyo zeMonel,
ukukhetha imathiriyeli efanelekileyo ye-snubber ngundoqo ekugcineni ukusebenza kakuhle kunye nokuthembeka kwenkqubo yakho.
Ngolwazi oluthe kratya okanye iingcebiso ezenzelwe wena ekukhetheni eyona snubber yoxinzelelo lweemfuno zakho,
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Thumela umyalezo wakho kuthi:
Ixesha lokuposa: Aug-05-2024